Using starvation as a tactic in war is a strategy that involves intentionally blocking access to food supplies for civilian populations or military personnel, aiming to weaken their resolve or compel a surrender without engaging in direct combat. Historically, this method was often employed through sieges, where armies would encircle cities or fortresses, cutting off the essential supplies of food and water, leaving those trapped inside with the grim choices of surrendering or succumbing to hunger. Such actions, aimed at deliberately inflicting suffering on non-combatants, highlight the cruel nature of using starvation as a weapon of war. The Geneva Conventions, along with their Additional Protocols, have taken a firm stand against this inhuman tactic, categorically prohibiting the use of starvation against civilians as a method of warfare. This legal framework underscores the international community's recognition of the need to protect the most vulnerable in times of conflict and the importance of maintaining a semblance of humanity, even amidst warfare. Classifying the intentional starvation of civilian populations as a war crime reflects a global consensus on the immorality and illegality of such acts. Despite these prohibitions, the tragic recurrence of starvation in conflicts underscores the challenges of enforcing international laws in war zones, highlighting the ongoing struggle between strategic military objectives and the imperative to uphold human rights.

Historical Examples

The Siege of Leningrad (1941-1944): The Siege of Leningrad, lasting from 1941 to 1944 during World War II, represents one of the most brutal instances of siege warfare, where the German Army encircled Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg, Russia), effectively severing the city from all essential supplies of food and fuel. This blockade led to an extreme famine within the city, marking a horrifying period where starvation became a daily reality for its inhabitants. The siege's relentless nature turned streets once bustling with life into grim scenes of despair, as over a million civilians succumbed to starvation. The Germans, aiming for military surrender, did not foresee the immense ethnic and political ramifications their actions would have on the civilian population. The starvation at Leningrad was not merely a consequence of war but a deliberate tactic used to break the spirit of the Soviet resistance, highlighting a dark chapter in human conflict where hunger was weaponized. Families were torn apart by the sheer force of hunger, with accounts of desperation leading to unimaginable choices just to survive another day. The city's defenders, even as they starved, continued to resist, showcasing the human spirit's resilience against the backdrop of such dire adversity. The starvation siege of Leningrad stands as a testament to the cruelty of warfare tactics aimed at civilians, reflecting a profound tragedy in the annals of World War II. This period of starvation not only decimated the population but also left indelible scars on the survivors and the city's cultural memory, echoing the pain of loss and the cruelty of a siege meant to starve out a city. The siege's end brought little solace to those who survived, as the aftermath of such starvation had long-lasting effects on the health and psyche of Leningrad's citizens. The Siege of Leningrad, through its use of starvation as a weapon, underscores the devastating impact of war on civilian populations, emphasizing the need for remembering and learning from these harrowing episodes of human history.

Siege of Biafra (1967-1970): During the Nigerian Civil War, also known as the Biafran War, from 1967 to 1970, the Nigerian government implemented a strategic blockade against the secessionist state of Biafra, aiming to regain control over the breakaway region. This blockade proved to be a catastrophic measure, as it prevented the entry of food, medical supplies, and other essentials into Biafra, directly leading to a humanitarian crisis of immense proportions. The resultant famine within Biafra was not a mere side effect of the conflict but a deliberate consequence of the blockade, designed to weaken the secessionist forces by targeting the civilian population. The famine brought about by this blockade led to the deaths of hundreds of thousands, with estimates reaching up to two million civilians, a significant portion of whom were children, succumbing to starvation and malnutrition-related diseases. The harrowing images of malnourished Biafran children with distended stomachs, broadcast across the world, became a symbol of the devastating impact of the blockade, sparking international outrage and drawing attention to the conflict. These images galvanized a significant humanitarian response, with international organizations and foreign governments attempting to deliver aid, despite the challenges posed by the Nigerian government's restrictions. The blockade and ensuing famine highlighted the brutal use of starvation as a weapon of war, intentionally targeting the most vulnerable – an act that has been condemned by the international community in various conflicts. The Biafran famine underscored the dire consequences of economic and military blockades in war zones, where the civilian population suffers the most.

Limiting calorie intake as a method of mass killing is a sinister form of starvation, where controlling the food supply becomes a weapon of genocide. Historically, this tactic has been employed in various contexts to systematically weaken and eliminate targeted populations. For example, during World War II, the Nazi regime meticulously calculated the food rations for concentration camp inmates and ghettos, ensuring they were insufficient to sustain life, as part of their broader genocidal policies. Similarly, in the Holodomor, the Soviet government's forced collectivization led to a devastating famine in Ukraine, where the deliberate withholding of food and strict control over calorie intake resulted in millions of deaths. These historical examples underscore the grim reality that limiting caloric intake has been used as a deliberate strategy to inflict suffering and death on large scales, highlighting the need for vigilance and intervention to prevent such atrocities.

The Warsaw Ghetto: (1940-1943): During World War II, the establishment of the Warsaw Ghetto by the Nazi regime exemplified a calculated cruelty through the manipulation of food supplies, with a particular focus on calorie counting. The Nazis imposed severe restrictions, allocating food rations that were meticulously calculated to be insufficient for survival. This regime determined the exact calorie intake for the ghetto's residents, ensuring it was dangerously low and far below the minimum required for basic health maintenance. The strategy was not just about limiting food but about controlling the very life force of over 400,000 Jews confined within the ghetto's bleak boundaries. By dictating such starvation-level calorie counts, the Nazis effectively weaponized food, turning it into a tool of oppression. The impact of this calorie restriction was devastating, leading to widespread hunger and acute starvation among the population. The deliberate undernourishment weakened the residents physically, making them more susceptible to diseases and reducing their ability to resist or escape. The calculated starvation policy was a clear manifestation of the Nazi's inhumane treatment and disregard for human life, aiming to break the spirit and body of the Jewish community. This sinister aspect of the Holocaust highlights the extent to which the regime went to exert control and inflict suffering, using scientific precision to calculate the minimum sustenance to sustain life, only to withhold it. The Warsaw Ghetto's ordeal under Nazi-imposed calorie counting stands as a stark reminder of the brutalities of war and the horrific capabilities of systematic oppression.

he Holodomor in Soviet Ukraine (1932-1933) As part of this genocidal campaign, Soviet authorities implemented policies aimed at controlling food distribution and systematically depriving Ukrainians of food. Calorie counting and food quotas were used to enforce agricultural collectivization and suppress dissent among Ukrainian peasants. Grain quotas were set unrealistically high, leaving little for local consumption or seed reserves. Peasants who resisted collectivization or failed to meet grain quotas were labeled as "kulaks" and subjected to violent repression, including confiscation of their food supplies and deportation to labor camps or remote regions. The deliberate withholding of food and the manipulation of food distribution channels resulted in widespread starvation and death. Millions of Ukrainians perished as a result of the Holodomor, and it is widely recognized as one of the most devastating episodes of mass starvation and ethnic cleansing in history. While not explicitly labeled as "calorie counting," the policies implemented during the Holodomor represent a systematic use of food manipulation and deprivation as a means of targeting a specific ethnic group, with the intention of weakening and ultimately destroying it.

Generational Impact

Transgenerational Inheritance of Small RNAs: In a study involving C. elegans, a type of tiny worm, researchers discovered that the effects of starvation could be passed down through generations. When these worms experienced a lack of food, they produced specific small RNA molecules as a response to the starvation. These molecules were then inherited by their offspring for up to three generations. Interestingly, these small RNAs targeted genes related to nutrition, suggesting a biological way that the impact of starvation could be transferred from parents to their children and even further. One of the most fascinating findings was that the third generation of worms, whose ancestors had been starved, actually lived longer lives. This study highlights how the consequences of environmental stresses like starvation can have complex effects that benefit or harm future generations, offering a new perspective on the long-term biological impacts of our environment.

Increased Risk of Non-Communicable Diseases: Research has shown that when a baby is exposed to famine while still in the womb, it could lead to a higher chance of developing high blood sugar and type 2 diabetes as an adult. A particular study focusing on the Chinese famine discovered that individuals who were exposed to famine conditions before they were born were more likely to experience these health issues later in life. Moreover, this increased risk was not limited to just them; it also extended to their children, indicating that the effects of famine could be passed down through generations. This suggests that not getting enough nutrition at crucial stages of development can have long-lasting impacts, affecting not only one's health but also that of future generations. Such findings underline the importance of ensuring adequate nutrition during pregnancy to protect against the transgenerational risk of metabolic diseases.

Psychological and Behavioral Changes: Starvation not only impacts those who directly experience it but can also influence the eating habits and behaviors of future generations, possibly as a way to adapt or cope with food scarcity. Research has found that people whose ancestors faced starvation during critical times, such as in early childhood or while in the womb during the Second World War, display notable differences in how they eat compared to those without such a history. Specifically, these descendants tend to eat less fish and consume more red meat than their counterparts who do not have a family history of starvation. This indicates that experiencing famine can lead to long-term changes in what foods people prefer or how they behave around food. Such shifts in dietary patterns among offspring highlight the deep and lasting influence of ancestral nutritional struggles on subsequent generations.

Socioeconomic and Environmental Vulnerabilities: The root causes of famine, including socioeconomic and environmental factors like poverty, inadequate social and physical infrastructure, that are exacerbated by political instability and war don't just trigger famine; they can also create a vicious cycle of hardship that spans generations. These conditions not only heighten the immediate risk of famine but lay the groundwork for ongoing cycles of scarcity and vulnerability, making future generations more susceptible to similar crises. This cycle of deprivation can be hard to break without addressing the deeper issues that lead to famine in the first place. Therefore, tackling these foundational causes is essential to prevent famine and its long-term, transgenerational effects. By focusing on improving economic conditions, strengthening infrastructure, and ensuring political stability, it's possible to disrupt the cycle of famine and help secure a more prosperous future for subsequent generations.

The impact of collective starvation on future generations is complex and multifaceted, encompassing biological, psychological, and socioeconomic dimensions. These effects underscore the importance of addressing both the immediate and long-term consequences of famine and nutritional deprivation to protect and improve the health and well-being of future generations.

References

Ash, C. (2020). Famine's intergenerational partner. Science, 370(1), 678-678.

Conley, B., & Waal, A. (2019). The Purposes of Starvation. Journal of International Criminal Justice. Devereux, S. (2012). Hunger: The biology and politics of starvation. Global Public Health, 7(1), 104-106.

Rechavi, O., Houri-Ze’evi, L., Anava, S., Goh, W. S., Kerk, S., Hannon, G., & Hobert, O. (2014). Starvation-Induced Transgenerational Inheritance of Small RNAs in C. elegans. Cell, 158(1), 277-287.

Scharf, I. (2016). The multifaceted effects of starvation on arthropod behaviour. Animal Behaviour, 119(1), 37-48.